Case study about print culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Case study about print culture - Essay Example Among the things connected to the print media are; history of the book, its production, circulation and consumption, and the role of the publishers, editors and the authors in coming up with the complete and finished end product. The medium theory is a contemporary means of classifying the role of the media in an examinable mode to come up with how it impacts on the human communication and also how the human expression is captured in a bid to emphasize on the role of the media in our life and its significance (David 2005, p.12). In the recent past, it has been found that most emphasis has been laid on the content and not the medium of the communication itself. It is of importance to look at the role of the medium through which communication will reach the people and also come up with the way in which it is going to change the world’s social and cultural values. In our case, the book â€Å"Stone’s Fall† by Lain Pears is a good one in which we can observe the main theme and aim of the publisher and the author and the intention of the entire work. Darnton entails clearly the use of print as a means of communication to reach to the population and also come up with the best way in which they can understand the media best. It entails the origin of the print media since the 15th century and brings on board the concept of research in a bid to come up with a general and common way of viewing the print industry. According to the founders of the medium theory, the suggestions are that the media is the message and the channel in which communication was transmitted. The medium theory however, does not comprehensively allow people to acknowledge what the message conveys or how the information is received. It tackles mostly the concept of the media richness and also the characteristics of the medium itself. Mcluhan (1967) stressed on how channels differ and how they awaken and alter the thoughts and the

The Spanish Settlement Essay Example for Free

The Spanish Settlement Essay During the 17th century, many nations started settling all throughout North America. Spanish conquistadors claimed much of the Southwest, while England began to occupy the Northeast. The Spanish and English colonies varied in terms of the impact of religion and control of the economy. The Spanish and English colonies varied in terms of religion such as immigration and opinions on salvation. Starting in the late 1500s and early 1600s, conquistadors such as Vasco Nunuez de Balboa and Herman Cortes of the Spanish empire first started to make their way into the New World. Known for their mantra, â€Å"Gold, Glory, God†, the main reason for their expansion was for power and wealth. In the Spanish church, the Pope decided who went to Heaven. This scared most Roman Catholics of the Spanish Empire into following the rules of the church. The Spanish ships arrived containing soldiers of the Spanish empire as well as Franciscan Friars, or priests of the Roman Catholic Church. The priests began converting Native Americans to Catholicism. The Spanish believed that by converting the Native Americans, the natives would be saved from an eternity spent in Hell. (This belief led them to demand tribute from the Native Americans.) Due to the notion that the Pope grants entrance into heaven, King Phillip III of the Spanish Empire fulfilled any demand the head of the church had. When the Pope insisted the Roman Catholic Church needed more money, King Phillip III made it a requirement for converted Native Americans to pay tribute to the Spanish using gold and silver bullion. On the other hand, English settlers came to the New World to practice their religion freely. After England broke away from the Roman Catholic Church in the 1500s, The Church of England was founded and all of England was forced to belong. The Puritans did not agree with ways of the Anglican Church. After years of being punished by King Charles I for not obeying the Church of England’s rules, the Puritans came to the New World. The colonists founded the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629 as a way to reform parts of the Protestant religion. One major aspect of the Anglican Church that the Puritans wanted to reform was the belief that one’s actions on earth determined entrance into Heaven. The Puritans believed in predestination, a belief that God decides who will go to Heaven and Hell before birth. A Puritan’s actions on Earth were evidence of who was going to heaven. The Spanish and the English came to the New World for different reasons. The Spanish came to expand their empire through religion. The  English wanted religious freedom. The Spanish settlers had strong ties back the Spanish empire; all tribute that Native Americans aid to the Spanish settlers was sent back to the Spanish empire and Roman Catholic Church. Because the English setters came to the New World to distance themselves from England, the colonists of New England were mostly on their own. Because of this, English settlers were more independent and self-sufficient. The cultures also had different ideas about salvation. The Spanish believed that leaders of the church decide who goes to heaven. The English believed that their fate was predestined, and that God chose who will go to heaven before birth. Because of the Spanish settlers reliance on the church officials, the English settlers show more independence than the Spanish. Another difference between the Spanish settlers of the Southwest and English settlers of New England were their views on acceptable ways to treat the Native Americans economically and on proper handling of wealth. The Spanish used the encomienda system to acquire wealth. Under this system, an ecomendero was granted a specific number of Native Americans to protect from other tribes and teach the Spanish language to. In exchange, the encomendero could force the Native Americans to pay tribute in forms of bullion and labor. Eventually, the native people began to die off from the harsh labor and foreign diseases that the Spanish brought from Spain. The Native Americans rejected Spanish control and returned to their customs. Angered by this, the Spanish captured 46 Pueblo leaders, which started the Pueblo Revolt. After years of fighting, the Spanish regained control. In New England, relationships with local Native Americans started out peaceful. The Native Americans and settlers of New England began to trade with each other. Native Americans, who were used to their elementary weapons, acquired better weapons from the Europeans. This once beneficiary exchange between the two cultures eventually grew tense. As years went on and more settlers came to America, conflicts arose. An agreement formed between Dutch settlers of New York and the English settlers of New England about the division of the Pequot lands. When no immediate decisions were reached of who would gain the land, New Englanders started to settle in the area without notice. The Pequot took this unplanned invasion as a form of attack, and fought back. After a series of attacks, New England called for reinforcements from allies. By joining forces with Plymouth and the Narragansett people, the  English gained control of the lands. In Spanish settlements, the economy revolved around mercantilism. The colonies were founded to economically compliment the Spanish empire by sending all wealth back to Spain. Foreign ships were prohibited to enter Spanish ports to keep a positive balance of trade. On the other side of the New World, the English colony of Plymouth initially set up a communal society. The entire community shared the land and helped farm. This later proved to be unsuccessful, and the land was divided up. In New England, farming was possible, but not particularly successful. The rocky soil and short growing season made growing the majority of crops difficult. The English settlers found the most profit in fishing and large trading ships. Since the colonists of New England were independent, from England, all profit made from farming and fishing stayed in the colonies. The Spanish and English battled with Native Americans of the Southwest and New England. The Spanish settlers, coming from a large empire, already had the taste for conquering other nations. Defeating cultures was a foreign concept to the people of New England. Their humble victory over the Pequot people resulted in unexpected success. The Spanish and English had similar economies with major differences. The Spanish economy was based on mercantilism. This gives evidence of ties back the Spanish empire, who ruled Spanish settlements. The English colonists traded with Europe, but also raised crops and cattle for themselves. While the Spanish sent their gained wealth back to Spain, the English settlers were able to make a profit. Because the Spanish settlements economy was created to benefit the Spanish empire, English settlers are more independent than the empire reliant Spanish. The Spanish and English settlers varied due to the English settler’s independence. The Spanish settlers showed more dependent on Spain, while English settlers showed independence when it came to treatment of Native Americans and economically using resources widely. The colonists of New England were better prepared for life on their own, and eventually gained control of all of America.

Work And Family Life

Work And Family Life Todays employees are working in a highly turbulent and competitive business and working environment. As a result majority of employees work life become so complex. Due to this work life complexity and current world economical condition leads employees to work long hours or do multiple jobs. With the expansion of global business and technology, employees of the global firms need to maintain continues contact with their colleagues or customers who operate within 8 or 10 different time zones away. This means that many employees work within the global firms need to be standby during 24 hours. Moreover cutting edge technology allows employees to perform their work at home or any other place. In fact most of todays world married employees are part of a dual-career couples This makes increasingly difficult for married employees to find time to fulfil commitment to home, spouse, children, parents and friends. Therefore, due to these reasons work life tent to be interfere with family life. Th is is called work family conflict. Since this work family conflict leads to create negative consequences such as increased absenteeism, increased turnover, diminishing performances, etc; it is important to have a good understanding about this work family conflict in organisational context. Therefore in todays organisations, work place environment is being modified to minimise work family conflict and to establish a balance between work and family life. This mostly include offering flexible work schedule, relocated assistance, adoption assistance, provide training for managers to assist employees in dealing work/family conflicts, focus on employees actual performance rather face time, casual day programme, etc. Conduct these types of programmes within the organisations is important since its tent to reduce mainly work/family conflicts, job dissatisfaction, and stress related problems. But on the other hand it may be difficult to assess the direct positive impacts of these programmes have on work performances of the emp loyees. Work and Family Life- reciprocal effects article is mainly focus on foresaid work/family conflict. All arguments of this article are base on several research findings done by the Australian Institute of Family Studies and other relative studies. According to article it is been proved that 25 and 40 percent of employees indicate that their jobs interferes with family life to some extent. Furthermore base on the research done by Australian Institute of Family Studies found that 28% of women and 40% of men believe that work life interferes with home life. At the same manner 35% women and 28% of men believe that their partners work life interferes with home life. But out of all respondents only few men and women believe that the family life interfere with their work life. This result of the survey shows the impact of family life to the employees working life. These factors increase the real need of work/family life balancing in order to gain employees performances. Most of the middle age employees(30-49) believe that work life interfere with family life with the complexity of work and family life that they are experiencing at that age such as child care, high peek career demand, etc. Courses for work/family conflicts When analysing work/family conflict it can be identify few major factors associated with it. One factor is employees job situation. As a result of job related factors such as downsizing, additional task allocation, challenging assignments, and strategies of participation, job insecurity and frequent relocations have brought an increased workload which stimulates tension and course to create a true conflict between employees work and family life. Another main factor highlighted in this article is employees working hours. According to the research findings, 23 percent of women and 66 percent of men were working more than 41 hours per week. This hour of work is tent to affect the degree of impact to create work/family conflict. Research finding indicate that 60 percent of men and women are preferred to work fewer hours than they currently work as a result of work interfere with home life. In fact job position of the organisation also determine the level of work interfere with family life. Employees in higher job positions tend to work longer hours, under pressure with higher responsibilities and job tasks. This leads to create high stress to the employees. This stress leads to negative sequences such as unsatisfactory behaviours at job: delays, absenteeism, lack of motivation and reduced level of performance. On the family life, presence of childrens can also tend to complex this work/family conflict and will act as obstacle for work family balancing process. One factor which tend to determine the level of work interfere with family life is age levels of childrens of married employees. This varies for fathers and mothers. According to this article, youngest childrens have a great impact to the level of work/family conflict of mothers where as the younger childrens have greater impact for fathers in creating conflict between work and family. Partners work schedule and conditions have greater impact in determining level of work/family conflict as a result of increasing level of dual careers of families. Therefore this leads to determine the happiness of family life bas on the job situations experiencing by the employees. According to the research findings; out of fulltime working couples with children under 18, 47 percent fathers and 41 percent of mothers strongly believe that their work life is interfere with family life. Moreover mothers who work for part time is less likely to feel that their work life tend to interfere with family life since they have much more time in balancing work and family life. In fact more men than women tend to believe that their work life interferes with family life as a result of working long hours. On the other hand, there is high tendency to exist high work/family life for lone mothers than couple families since all responsibilities fall on the one parent. When considering courses for work/family conflict many researches and studies argue that many employees tend to believe, work life more interfere with family life rather than family life interfere with work life. Moreover many studies highlighted that employees are better in managing potential disruptions occur from family life into work rather than managing work disruptions affect to family life. According to the research findings (Australian family life course study); only few employees were believe that family life interfere with work life. (Out of full time employees, 11 percent men and 13 percent women and 0 percent of part-time working women) Therefore it can be noted that work life begin to interfere for family life, when job responsibilities and problems begin to interfere in accomplishing family related obligations. Outcomes of work/family conflict As foresaid, it can be distinguish two types of work-family conflict: work interferes with family life and family interfere with work life. Therefore these two types of conflict are adverse consequences for several outcomes for employees. Stress Stress can be identifying as one of main outcome of work-family life conflict. Most of the employees tend to suffer from this stress as a result of failing to have a better balance between family and work life. Therefore we can find that there is high correlation between work/family conflicts with employee stress. Most of the researches conduct various types of researches to identify this relationship. Many authors define Stress as an interaction between the factors that leads to stress (stressors) and level of individual response towards it (strain). http://icssea.ppiukm.org/paper/PSI-97.pdf Lot of employees are subjected to have an anxiety, low work motivation, low job satisfaction, pressure and burnout as a result of high work responsibilities, long working hours, job insecurity, high competition, unmet family obligations, etc. Since all foresaid factors are the reasons for work family conflict most researchers has been identify that the work/family conflict as a main source to ha ve stress and pressure. According to the Australian Family Course study, 43% percent men and 53% percent women often felt tired and run down their job tasks. From this research findings researches have been identify a positive relationship with work interfering with work and stress which influence employees well being. (Case) Job dissatisfaction Job dissatisfaction is associated with the degree of employees feeling towards their job. Negative feelings towards the job can leads to create low level of job satisfaction and this course to have high employee turnover, low performance, high absenteeism, etc. In order to identify the relationship between work/family conflict and job dissatisfaction, several researches had been done. These research findings always tend to highlight a negative relationship between work/family conflict and job satisfaction. As foresaid, stress, anxiety and high pressure are some of main outcome of work/family conflict. Therefore due to all these factors, leads to create low level of job satisfaction. According to the model proposed by Kopelman (1983), explain the relationship between factors like work conflict, family conflict, job satisfaction, family satisfaction and life satisfaction. This model argue that the factors such as work conflict and family conflict leads to create inter role conflict by employees and this inter role conflict, influence employees job and work satisfaction. Ultimately this both job and work satisfaction affect to life satisfaction. http://psasir.upm.edu.my/3101/1/Associations_of_Work-Family_Conflict,_Job_Satisfaction,_Family_Satisfaction.pdf This level of satisfaction is a crucial factor for any organisation, since its highly connected with employee turnover, absenteeism, performance level and productivity of the organisation. Therefore it is extremely important to assist employees o maintain a well balance work and family life. According to the research conduct by Department of Social Psychology and Methodology of Behaviour Sciences, University of Granada, Spain; has been identify that the relationship between work/family life and general job satisfaction is stronger in women than men. Moreover it found that general role of women in a family has a significant moderate effect on the association between work/family conflict and general job satisfaction of women. http://www.academicjournals.org/ajbm/PDF/pdf2010/4July/Calvo-Salguero%20et%20al.pdf

Anatomy of Criticism by Northrop Frye Essay -- Anatomy Criticism North

Anatomy of Criticism by Northrop Frye In Anatomy of Criticism, author Northrop Frye writes of the low mimetic tragic hero and the society in which this hero is a victim. He introduces the concept of pathos saying it â€Å"is the study of the isolated mind, the story of how someone recognizably like ourselves is broken by a conflict between the inner and outer world, between imaginative reality and the sort of reality that is established by a social consensus† (Frye 39). The hero of Hannah W. Foster’s novel, The Coquette undoubtedly suffers the fate of these afore mentioned opposing ideals. In her inability to confine her imagination to the acceptable definitions of early American female social behavior, Eliza Wharton falls victim to the ambiguity of her society’s sentiments of women’s roles. Because she attempts to claim the freedom her society superficially advocates, she is condemned as a coquette and suffers the consequences of exercising an independent mind. Yet, Eliza does not stand a lone in her position as a pathetic figure. Her lover, Major Sanford -- who is often considered the villain of the novel -- also is constrained by societal expectations and definitions of American men and their ambition. Though Sanford conveys an honest desire to make Eliza his wife, society encourages marriage as a connection in order to advance socially and to secure a fortune. Sanford, in contrast to Eliza, suffers as a result of adhering to social expectations of a male’s role. While Eliza suffers because she lives her life outside of her social categorization and Sanford falls because he attempts to maneuver and manipulate the system in which he lives, both are victims of an imperfect, developing, American society. Though Eliza’s ... ... comic hero. This flaw seems to be a result of the greater defect of the society in which he functions. Certainly not an innocent and having his own characterization of the same fatal flaw as Eliza – a decisive determination for independence -- Sanford shares in the traditional tragic conclusion of isolation and loss. Despite an attractive interpretation that Eliza Wharton deserves her tragic fate because she is too scandalous of a seductress, her fall is actually a result of her desire for autonomy in a society that denies women that right. Also, to view Sanford as a heartless villain would be reductionary. He too, like Eliza, is subject to the judgements, constraints, and values of a flawed society in which he is separated from his true love. Both characters fall as a result of their desire for relational freedoms that early American society denies them.

Listing Securities

Listing of Securities Chapter Objectives ? To understand the concept of listing of securities ? To know the criteria for listing shares ? To learn the listing procedure ? To understand the concept of delisting Concept of Listing of Securities ?It means the admission of shares of a public limited company on the stock exchange for the purpose of trading. ?A company intending to have its shares listed on the stock exchange has to write an application to one or more recognised stock exchanges. ?A company becomes qualified to list its shares after getting the prior permission from the stock exchange. Some of the advantages of listing of securities are: ? Liquidity Best prices Wide publicity ? Some disadvantages of listing of securities are: ? Subjected to various regulatory measures ? Expensive exercise Criteria for Listing A company that wants its securities to be listed in the stock exchange has to fulfil certain minimum requirements, such as: ? Minimum issued capital: A company shoul d have minimum issued capital of Rs. 3 crores and the minimum public offer must be of Rs. 75 lakhs. ?Listing on multiple exchanges: It is essential for a company to get listed in the stock exchange if its paid up capital is above Rs. crores. ?Number of shareholders: A company must have a minimum ten shareholders. ?Articles of Association: The Articles of Association must be prepared in line with the sound corporate practice of a company. ?Advertisement: A company during the subscription period must not advertise by thanking the public for their overwhelming response. ?Applying mode: A company must issue a prospectus, which provides information on how the investor should apply for the shares. ?Public offer size: A company, in the first page of the prospectus must state the size of the public offer and the value of shares. Listing ProcedureTo get the listing permission from the stock exchange, a company has to undertake the following steps: ?Preliminary discussion: A company must have a detailed discussion with the authorities of the stock exchange in order to acquire complete knowledge about the various formalities to be completed for listing of securities. ?Articles of Association approval: A company must fulfil the following requirements in order to get the Articles of Association approved by the stock exchange authorities: ?It must use a common form of transfer. ?In case of distributing dividends, it must comply with Section 205-A f the Companies Act. ?The free dealing of shares must not be restricted by any provision. ?Draft prospectus approval: It is very essential for a company to get its draft prospectus approved from the stock exchange authorities. A prospectus must contain all the information required by the stock exchange. Listing Application ?A company that wants to offer its shares through the prospectus must file an application to the stock exchange. ?A company has to file following certificates alongwith the prospectus: ?Three certified copies of the memorandum and articles of association, and debenture trust deed. A copy of every report, balance sheet, valuation, court order, etc. as specified in the prospectus. ?Certified copies of underwriting, brokerage and sales managers’ agreement. ?Copies of agreements with the financial institutions. Listing Fee ?It is a fee charged by the stock exchange from the company for permitting the company’s securities to be traded in the exchange. ?It varies from major stock exchanges to regional stock exchanges. ?It also varies due to the equity base of the company. Listing of Right Shares A company has to fulfil certain formalities in case of isting right shares in the stock exchange, such as: ? ? ? ? ? A company must inform the stock exchange about the date of meeting with the Board of Directors for considering the proposal of listing right shares. A company must obtain the consent of the shareholders by passing on a special resolution. A company must file a letter of offer that provides the financial information about the current market price of the share. A company must file a letter of offer within six weeks. A company must file a specimen copy of the offer letter to the stock exchange. Delisting It is the removal of a company’s shares from the listing in the stock exchange. ? Delisting can be of two types: ? Compulsory: The causes for compulsory delisting are as follows: ? Non-payment of the listing fee ? Non-redressal of grievances ? Unfair trade practices carried on by the managers ? Voluntary: The causes for voluntary delisting are as follows: ? ? ? Business suspended Mergers and takeovers Small capital base Chapter Summary By now, you should have: ? Understood the concept of listing of securities ? Learnt the procedure of listing of securities ? Understood the concept of delisting

Biculturism and Marginalization Essay

* Ross-Sheriff (2011) commented that international migration patterns have * changed as a consequence of broad social, political, economic, and environmental * trends and explained the causes of the driving forces were including war, * globalization, urbanization, and changing cultural norms regarding social roles and * responsibilities (Ross-Sheriff, 2011). With these complex trends of migration * patterns, Van Hear (2010) viewed migration as a process which was an integral part * of broader social transformations, but which also had its own internal dynamics with * other factors related to the migrating process, shaping social transformation in their * own way. Migration was also linked in complex ways to class, gender, generation, * ethnicity and other social factors, which were embodied in positions in home and host * communities, and in work and domestic relationships, all of which might be * transformed in the course of the migratory process (Van Hear, 2010). To understand this complex process of migration, especially under changing circumstances of one culture to another, it might be useful to build conceptual tools for understanding these transitory processes in migration studies and in social science more widely (Van hear, 2010). They also include mediating agents and transitions that need also to be accounted for, as well as intersections among class, gender, generation, ethnicity and other social ruptures as well as the main driving forces of migration (Van Hear, 2010). Of course there were other important concepts such as relations between time and space, between dynamics or processes and outcomes, and between structure and agency that needed to get attention (Van Hear, 2010). However, it is impossible to discuss all different theoretical concepts involved in different types of migration process in the current limited study. Rather, this study tried to focus on psychological impacts such as ethnic identity and self-esteem on migration through acculturation processes particularly on family- related migration because different patterns of migration produced different communities and resulted in producing different migrant identities including varying levels of psychological distress (Jones, 2008). Further, few empirical studies have focused on migrant adults populations. Most migrants identification related literatures tended to relate more for adolescents or young children because identity formation might be particularly challenging in this cohort, especially when the values and beliefs of their natal culture differed significantly from those of the host society (Sodowsky, Kwan, & Pannu, 1995; as cited in Farver, Narang, & Bhadha, 2002). Therefore, this study focused on ethnic identity and self-identification issues of adult migrants’ themselves within a family structure according to different theoretical models relevant to adaptation of new cultures, because family was the basic instrument in the society (Nesdale, Rooney, & Smith, 1997). In fact, most cultural acquisition theories developed and evolved in 1990s. when international migration became a key issue in international politics at the beginning of 1990s. As Castle (2002) argued that migration, development and international relations were closely connected as migration was a major factor of transformation for both sending and receiving countries for different types of migrants (Castle, 2002). With this perspective, this study generally focused on those migration culture acquisition theories developed in 1990 rather then looking at current perspectives in the most recent literatures, which actually have evolved from these original theories in 1990s (Castle, 2002). As the findings from these research studies has had been mixed or sometimes contradictory, it was important to understand the exact nature of the relationship between migrant ethnic identification and the acculturation process both need to be specified and assessed properly with coherent measurements and theoretical assumptions (Nesdale et al. , 1997). Important theoretical concepts: ethnic identity, acculturation, biculturism, and marginalisation. According to Phinney (1990; as cited in Farver, Narang & Bhadha., 2002), ethnic identity and acculturation were related but separate constructs. Ethnic identity involves an individual’s self-identification as a group member, a sense of belonging to an ethnic group, attitudes toward ethnic group of membership, and degree of ethnic group involvement (Farver et al. , 2002). The term acculturation was defined in anthropology as those phenomena, which resulted when groups of individuals having different cultures came into continuous first-hand contact with subsequent changes in the original pattern of either or both groups (Redfield, Linton, & Herskovits, 1936; as cited in Birman, 1994). Although acculturation was a neutral term in this context (that is, change might take place in either or both groups), in practice, acculturation tended to induce more changes in one of the groups than in the other (Berry, 1990a; as cited in Berry, 1997) Berry (1997) argued that in all plural societies, cultural groups and their individual members, in both dominant and non-dominant situations, must deal with the issue of how to acculturate. According to Berry (1997), four acculturation strategies were introduced: assimilation, separation, marginalization, and integration. When individuals do not wish to maintain their cultural identity and seek daily interaction with other new cultures, the assimilation strategy is defined. In contrast, when individuals place a value on holding on to their original culture, and at the same time wish to avoid interaction with others, then the separation is defined (Berry, 1997). When there is an interest in both maintaining one’s original culture, while in daily interactions with other groups, integration is the option; here, there is some degree of cultural integrity maintained, while at the same time seeking to participate as an integral part of the larger social network (Berry, 1997). Last, when there is little possibility or interest in cultural maintenance (often for reasons of enforced cultural loss), and little interest in having relations with others (often for reasons of exclusion or discrimination) then marginalization is defined (Berry, 1997). However, this acculturation categories model has been criticized methodologically (Rudmin, 2003, 2009; as cited in Schwartz et al. , 2010) because all four of Berry’s categories were represented in the same way by creating the two by two matrix of acculturation categories between high and low. However, the cut off point between high and low was arbitrary and would differ across samples, making comparisons across studies difficult, resulting in the fact that all four categories existed and were equally valid (Rudmin, 2003; as cited in Schwartz et al., 2010) and suggesting that not all of Berry’s categories might exist in a given sample or population, and that some categories might have multiple subtypes (Schwartz et al. , 2010). In particular, Berry (1997) viewed the term â€Å"biculturism† as referring to acculturation that involved the individual simultaneously in the two cultures that were in contact in integrative ways, which appeared to be a consistent predictor of more positive outcomes than the three alternatives of assimilation, separation, or marginalization. Berry and his colleagues (Sam & Berry, 1995) assessed the acculturation strategies of various immigrant groups in North America and the results showed that bicultural individuals experienced less acculturative stress, anxiety and fewer psychological problems significantly, while marginalized individuals suffered the most psychological distress, including problems with self-identification and cultural alienation, which adversely affected their self-esteem (Farver et al. , 2002). However, Shiraev and Levy (2007) explained acculturative stress as a negative feeling that a marginalized person might experience as a distressing psychological reaction to any unfamiliar cultural environment based on the assumption that person and groups undergoing any social and cultural change should experience a certain amount of psychological distress. Generally, many early definitions of acculturation focused on exposure to two cultures simultaneously as a culture shock, which was a reactive state of specific pathology or deficit, rather than taking advantage of being bicultural (Berry & Annis, 1974; Shiraev et al., 2007). The validity of marginalization as an approach to acculturation by Berry (1997) was also questioned (Del Pilar & Udasco, 2004; as cited in Schwartz et al. , 2010). Schawartz et al. argued that the likelihood that a person would develop a cultural sense of self without drawing on either the heritage or receiving cultural contexts would be less likely to. The marginalization approach might be true only for the small segment of migrants who rejected both their heritage and receiving cultures (Berry, 2006b). Indeed, studies using empirically based clustering methods have found small or nonexistent marginalization groups and scales that attempted to measure marginalization typically had poor reliability and validity compared with scales for the other categories (Cuellar, Arnold, & Maldonado, 1995; Unger et al. , 2002; as cited in Schwartz et al. , 2010). As described earlier, the impact of migrant ethnic identity on psychological distress had comparatively diverse points of views if they were either negative or positive reactions, depending on different theoretical frames. For example, Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner, 2001) and Self-Categorization Theory (Turner, 1987) emphasized more on the importance to individuals of their identification with particular social groups. Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner, 2001; as cited in Yip, Gee, & Takeuchi, 2008) viewed a possible explanation for why ethnic identity might buffer the effects of discrimination. According to this theory,individuals chose from an array of possible social identity groups and, once those groups were chosen, individuals focused on the positive aspects of their in-group, which helped to boost their own esteem, suggesting that ethnic identity was more important to their overall identity (Yip et al. , 2009). In contrast, if ethnicity was a central component of one’s identity, it might actually exacerbate the effects of discrimination, resulting in a greater negative impact on mental health, according to self-categorization theory (Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher, & Wetherell, 1987; as cited in Yip et al., 2008), suggesting that people should be more in tune with environmental cues that were relevant to an important aspect of their identity. That is, experiences of racial discrimination might be such a cue relevant to their ethnic identity. Indeed, research suggested that African American adults and adolescents who reported strong racial centrality were also more likely to report experiences of racial discrimination (Neblett, Shelton, & Sellers, 2004; Sellers, Caldwell, Schmeelk-Cone, & Zimmerman, 2003; Sellers & Shelton, 2003; as cited in Yip et al., 2008). However, despite this emphasis by social theorists, they tended to forget the larger literature that involved with both ethnicity and the acculturation process (Liebkind, 1993; 1996; as cited in Nesdale, Rooney & Smith, 1997). First of all, these different findings resulted from lack of inclusion of acculturation itself as a variable methodologically when acculturation was considered as a phenomenon in research designs (Sam and Berry, 2006). Without including acculturation as a variable, the explanations for human behavior similarities and differences across populations would remain incomplete (Sam et al. , 2006). Second, a further criticism of the acculturation literatures was that the same two acculturation processes, and the same four-acculturation categories, characterized all migrants equally—regardless of the type of migrant, the countries of origin and settlement, and the ethnic group in question, according to Berry’s (1980) model and other similar approaches (Sam et al., 2006). Finally, the vast majority of studies in the acculturation literature have focused on behavioral acculturation (Schwartz et al. , 2010). That is, most widely used acculturation measures included primarily (or only) items assessing language use and other cultural practices (e. g. , Cuellar, Arnold, & Maldonado, 1995; Stephenson, 2000; Szapocznik, Kurtines, & Fernandez, 1980; as cited in Schwartz et al. , 2010) due to accepting the fact that cultural practices might provide only a fair proxy for cultural adaptation (Schwartz et al., 2010). Theoretical frameworks for acculturation research Shiraev & Levy (2007) claimed that cross-cultural psychologists usually used three approaches to examine human activities in various cultural settings. They were the sociobiological approach, the sociological approach and eco-cultural approach (Shiraev et al. , 2007). In particular, the eco-cultural approach emphasized both the environment and the individual were seen as open and interchanging systems (Shiraev et al., 2007), introducing John Berry whom originally developed this theory further in contemporary cross-cultural psychology. Shiraev et al. (2007) also pointed out that specialists should to be able to explain how, why, and to what extent people differed from one another, when ecological, biological, cultural, and acculturation factors were identified and taken into consideration (Berry, J. W. , Poortinga, Y. H. , Segall, M. H. , & Dasen. P. R. ,1992; as cited in Shiraev et al. , 2007). In related to the concerns pointed by Shiraev et al. (2007), Berry (1997) argued earlier there were important links between cultural context and individual behavioural development, demonstrating what happened to individuals who developed in one cultural context when attempting to re-establish their lives in another one through his acculturation research framework, by confirming the fact that acculturation was one of the most complex areas of research in cross-cultural psychology because the process involved more than one culture and in two distinct senses (Berry, 1997). According to Berry (1997), the concept of acculturation was employed to refer to the cultural changes resulting from different ethnic groups encountered, while the concepts of psychological acculturation and adaptation were employed to refer to the psychological changes and eventual outcomes that occur as a result of individuals experiencing acculturation. In another words, acculturation phenomena resulted from contact between two or more cultures and research on acculturation had to be comparative in order to understand variations in psychological outcomes that were the result of cultural variations in the two groups in contact (Berry, 1997). In particular, this framework viewed the integration model of acculturation strategies the most desirable among other strategies, considering it the same as the biculturalism model (Berry, 1997). For example, Berry and his colleagues (Berry, 1980; Berry, J. W. , Kim, U. , Power, S. , Young, M, & Bujaki, M. , 1989; Berry, Kim, Minde, & Mok, 1987; Sam & Berry, 1995 as cited in Farver et al., 2002) Assessed the acculturation strategies of various immigrant groups in North America and the result showed that integration was the most psychologically adaptive attitude, arguing that integrated or bicultural individuals experienced less acculturative stress and anxiety and manifested fewer psychological problems than those who were marginalized, separated, or assimilated, whereas marginalized individuals suffered the most psychological distress, including problems with self-identification and cultural alienation, which also affected their self-esteem (Farver et al., 2002). However, Phinney, Cantu, and Kurtz (1997) found that American identity was associated with self-esteem only for non-Hispanic Whites, but not for other ethnic groups. These mixed results as explained above raised two issues in the acculturation literatures. First of all, cultural practices might offer only a substitute for cultural adpatations, as Portes and Rumbaut (2001 as cited in Schwartz et al., 2010) mentioned that many Asian American young adults in their sample were not proficient in their native languages, even though they still perceived their identification with their parents’ countries of origin and maintained many of their values (Schwarz et al. , 2010). Secondly, most researchers on biculturism did not sufficiently define an accurate operational definition of biculturism so that interpretation of those research results were problematic (Birman, 1994). Indeed, one finding in the United States, was that self-identification as American was markedly higher in non-Hispanic Whites than in ethnic minority groups (e. g. , Devos & Banaji, 2005; as cited in Schwartz et al. , 2010) and many White Americans did not perceived themselves as members of an ethnic group (Schildkraut, 2007; as cited in Schwartz et al. , 2010). In brief, different operational definition problems of acculturation arose from different theoretical models of acculturation regarding to their assumptions (LaFromboise, Coleman, & Gerton, 1993). LaFromboise et al. (1993) assumed acculturation as one of substitutes among the biculturism models. Biculturism as defined in this theory was viewed as the alternation model, which implied an individual in two culture contacts could be competent in both cultures without losing one of the cultures’ competencies in distinct cultural contexts as alternation model, whereas, fusion model meant a blended cultural identity, consisting of a synthesis of aspects of both cultures (LaFromboise et al., 1993). However, Berry’s (1997) integrating approach of biculturism differed from the bicultural model (LaFromboise et al. , 1993; as cited in Birman, 1994) and it emphasized more on the relationship between the two cultural groups based on its implicit assumption that one of two cultures were higher than the other within a single social structure (LaFromboise et al. , 1993). Benet-Martinez and colleagues found that â€Å"blended† bicultural individuals tended to report higher self-esteem and lower psychological distress than a marginal population (Chen et al. , 2008 as cited in Schwartz et al. , 2010) because the consistent availability of both cultural flows within the person’s everyday life increased the ease of activating the correct cultural schema in accordance with their environmental situations (Schwartz et al. , 2010). In contrast, Tadmor, Tetlock, and Peng (2009) argued that the bicultural model considered those marginal individuals in positive ways, when there was little interest in cultural maintenance and little interest in having relations with others, suggesting positive aspects of being a marginal person might be (1) sharing his or her condition with others of the same original culture; (2) engaging in institutional practices that were shared by other marginal people; (3) experiencing no major frustration from social expectations; and (4) still perceiving himself or herself to be a member of a group (LaFromboise et al., 1993). According to Sam and Berry (2006), many studies of how migrants coped with intercultural contacts had discrepancies in the ways in which they were operationalized and measured. As no standardized or widely accepted acculturation measures existed, it was necessary to design a clear and explicit formulation of acculturation instrument in order to assess acculturation adequately (Sam et al. , 2006). Further Sam and Berry (2006) pointed out that most empirical studies widely used a self-report type of questionnaires that had been recognized limitations such as social desirability, emphasizing obtaining divergent validation by source of information other than the respondents’ reports. Therefore, it is vital to understand each theory within its specific assumptions and not to generalize across all situations regardless of their similar findings (LaFromboise et al. , 1993). As this study discovered migrants’ acculturation processes so far within specific theoretical frameworks, literature findings in different research were mixed as to whether individuals could be highly acculturated and at the same time be strongly identified with their ethnic group (Farver, Narang, & Bhadha. , 2002). These confusing problems initially evolved because of the context in which migration arrangements and their acculturation processes were fundamentally transformed and increasingly uncertain due to globalization (Landolt & Da, 2005). Shiraev & Levy (2007) suggested a new approach to cross-cultural psychology in the twenty-first century, which was linked to the concept of globalization. Globalization was defined as a proliferation of cross-border flow and transnational networks due to new technologies of communication and transport that allowed frequent and multi-directional streams of people, ideas and cultural symbols (Castle, 2010). Castle also argued that globalization leads to major changes in the character of international migration. In other words, the context for migrant incorporation has already changed radically and will continue to do so. The rise of multiculturalism itself rather than assimilation or biculturism is one sign of this, but is not the end of the story: new forms of identity and belonging go beyond multiculturalism (Castle, 2010). Even though there is limited empirical evidence for clear statements for globalization, there probably are highly cosmopolitan groups who feel at home everywhere such as global business and professional elites might correspond with this image. But most members of transnational communities fall between these extremes, and probably have contradictory and fluctuating identities (Castle, 2002). Conclusions This study explored that a special case of cultural psychology was the study of how individuals respond to situations where they were in transition between their original culture and another that differed from it in some respects in terms of acculturation, especially within a specific theoretical frame that could apply to the specific situation (Adler & Gielen, 1994). There was no single theory widely accepted by all social scientists to agree with the emergence and perpetuation of international migration patterns in the world under globalization (Van Hear, 2010),suggesting that the contemporary migrating context in which such migrating arrangements were realized fundamentally kept transforming so that it became increasingly uncertain (Landolt and Da, 2005). Although the topic of cultural contact and individual’ change has attracted considerable attention in contemporary cross-cultural psychology, the field has been characterized by a lack of theoretical coherence, definitional problems with key constructs, and single sample studies that limit the external validity of empirical cross-cultural research (Ward and Kenney, 1994). As acculturation is a process which takes place over time, and which results in changes both in the culture and in the individual culture changes, it would be ideal o compare two sets of data are compared over time using the same people. However, in practice, it is impossible in most acculturation research settings (Sam et al. , 2006). Instead, a common alternative to longitudinal research is cross-sectional research in which a time-related variable, such as length of residence or generational status can be used for the generalizability of acculturation theories (Sam et al., 2006). In general, researchers of migrating studies need to be aware that it is the selective nature of the sample that happens across all migrating research. That is, individuals who chose to migrate would be different from those who do not (Sodowsky, G. , Kwan, K. , & Pannu, R. , 1995; as cited in Farver et al. , 1997). Finally, acculturation research generally focused on immigrants assumed to be permanently settled in their new host countries. As a result, the terms â€Å"migrants† or â€Å"international migrants† referred to the same type of migrants collectively. Moreover, many countries were both sending and receiving countries for different types of migrants, or in the process of transition from one type to the other (Castel, 2002). Therefore, where applicable, it is viable to design acculturation research studies classifying different types of migrants. References Adler, L. L. , & Gielen, U. P. (Eds. ). (1994). Cross-cultural topics in psychology. Westport: Praeger Publishers. Berry, J. W. (1980). Social and cultural change. In Triandis, H. C. , & Brislin, R. (Eds. ). Handbook of cross-cultural psychology (pp. 211-279). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Berry, J.W. , Kim, U. , Power, S. , Young, M, & Bujaki, M. (1989). Acculturation attitudes in plural societies. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 38, 185-206 Berry, (1990a). Psychology of acculturation. In Berman, J. (Eds. ). Cross-cultural perspectives: Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (pp. 201-234). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Berry, J. W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation, and adaption. Applied Psychology: An international review, 46(1), 5-68. Berry, J. W. , & Annis, R. (1974). A cculturation stress. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 5(4), 382-397. Berry, J. W. , Kim, U., Minde, T. , & Mok, D. (1987). Comparative studies of acculturative stress. International Migration Review, 21, 591-511. Berry, J. W. , Poortinga, Y. H. , Segall, M. H. , & Dasen. P. R. (1992). Cross-cultural Psychology: Research and application. New York: Cambridge university Press. Birman, D. (1994). Acculturation and human diversity in a multicultural society. In Trickett, E. J. , Watts, R. J. , & Birman D, (Eds. ). Perspectives on people in context (pp. 261-284). San Franscisco: Jossey-Bass Inc. Castele, S. (2002). Migration and community formation under conditions of globalization. The Center for Migration Studies of New York, 36(4), 1143- 1168. Cuellar, I. , Arnold, B. , & Maldonado, R. (1995). Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican Americans-II: a revision of the original ARSMA scale. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Science, 17, 275-304. doi: 10. 1177/07399863950173001 DelPilar, J. A. , & Udasco, J. O. (2004). Deculturation: Its lack of validity. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 10, 169-176. doi: 10. 1037/1099- 9809. 10. 2. 169 Devos, T. , & Banaji, M. R. (2005). American = White? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 447-466. doi: 10. 1037/0022-3514. 88. 3. 447 Farver, J. A. , Narang, S. K. , & Bhadha, B. R. (2002). East meets west: Ethnic identity, acculturation, and conflict in Asian Indian families. Journal of Family Psychology, 16(3), 338-350. doi: 10. 1037//0893-3200. 16. 3. 338 Jones, A. (2008). A silent but mighty river: the costs of women’s economic migration. Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 33(4), 761-807. Landolt, D. , & Da, W. W. (2005). The Spatially Ruptured Practices of Migrant Families: A Comparison of Immigrants from El Salvador and the People’s Republic of China. Current Sociology, 53, 625-652. doi: 10. 1177/0011392105052719. LaFromboise. , T. , Coleman. , H. , & Gerton (1993). Psychological impact of biculturism: Evidence and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 114(3), 394-412. Liebkind, K. (1993). Self-reported ethnic identity, depression and anxiety among youth Vietnamese refugees and their parents. 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(1936) memorandum on the study of acculturation. American Anthropologist, 38, 149-152. Ross-Sheriff, F. (2011). Global migration and gender. Journal of Women and Social Works, 26(3), 233-238a. doi: 10. 1177/0886109911417692 Rudmin, F. W. (2003). Critical history of the acculturation psychology of assimilation, separation, integration, and marginalization. Review of General Psychology, 7, 3-37. doi: 10. 1177/01461670731197 Sam, D. , & Berry, J. W. (1995). Acculturative stress among young immigrants in Norway. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 36, 10-24. Sam, D. , & Berry, J. W. (2006). The Cambridge handbook of acculturation psychology [Electronic version]. Retrieved from http://www. qut. eblib. com. au. ezp01. library. qut. edu. au/patron. Schildkraut, D. J. (2007). Defining American identity in the 21st century: How much â€Å"there† is there? Journal of Politics, 69, 597-615. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1468-2508. 2007. 00562. x Schwartz, S. J. , Unger, J. B. , Zamboanga, B. L. , & Szapocznik, J. (2010). Rethinking the concept of acculturation: Implications for the theory and research. American Psychologist, 65(4), 237-251. doi: 10. 1037/a0019330 Sellers, R.M. , Caldwell, C. H. , Schmeelk-Cone, K. H. & Zimmerman, M. A. (2003). Racial identity, racial discrimination, perceived stress, and psychological distress among African American young adults. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44(3), 302-317. Seller, R. M. , & Shelton, R. M. (2000). The role of racial identity in perceived racial discrimination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(5), 1079-1092. Shiraev, E. , & Levy, D. (2007). Cross-Cultural Psychology: Critical thinking and contemporary applications. Boston: Pearson Education Inc. Sodowsky, G. , Kwan, K. , & Pannu, R., (1995). Ethnic identity of Asians in the United States. In J. Ponterotto (Ed. ), Handbook of multicultural counseling (pp. 110- 130). Newbury Park: Sage. Stephenson, M. (2000). 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Laboratory Questions set 4 - Essay Example A. Factors affecting strength- 1.Although men's and women's muscle tissue are characteristically the same, men generally have more muscle tissue than women do because muscle size is increased by the presence of testosterone, the male sex hormone. The larger the muscles, the stronger the person; this is why most men are stronger than most women.2. The point of tendon insertion also influences muscle strength. For example, for two people with the same arm and muscle length, if one person's biceps tendon attaches to the forearm farther from the elbow joint than the other person's, that person will have a biomechanical advantage and be able to lift more weight than the other in biceps exercises such as the biceps curl. (Tackett 2003) Factors affecting power: 1. The ability to transport oxygen to the muscles by the respiratory and cardiovascular systems. The energy systems can be classified into the anaerobic and aerobic system and most activities generally require the use of a combination of systems for energy fulfillment. The anaerobic system is classified further into the immediate supply via the "alactic" or adenosine triphosphate-creatine phosphate (ATP-CP) and the short term energy supply from the "lactic" or gylcolytic pathways of energy supply. For more sustained and longer term energy supply the aerobic system is utilised by the process of oxidation. The ATP-CP system provides for the first 5-10 seconds and relates to speed and strength activities thus being very important to the production of power within performance. The recovery of this system is relatively quick with only periods of 30 seconds required to be replenished and then apply repeat effort. If high energy tasks are required greater than 10 seconds then the breakdown of glycogen to glucose and

Should celebrities who break the law face stricker penalties Research Paper

Should celebrities who break the law face stricker penalties - Research Paper Example Because they are idolized by young people and many of them appear to make a habit of crossing the line, the government should consider handing out more stringent punishments for law-breaking celebrities. Lindsay Lohan entered the limelight as a child fashion model at the age of three. She is best known for her roles in movies such as Herbie, Mean Girls and the remakes of The Parent Trap and Freaky Friday. Lohan became a household name because of how well she played goodie-girl-next-door roles. Sadly, Lohan has also become popular due to the number of times she has been asked to appear in court for drinking and driving and other acts of misdemeanor. From May 26, 2007 when she was arrested for driving under the influence (DUI) the first time, Lohan had been arrested a second time for DUI and another time for stealing a necklace at a store. (Kunkle, A., 2011) There has also been multiple probation periods served and several fines and bail fees paid. Lohan’s face crying at a heari ng or sitting inside a courtroom with her attorney has been on newspapers, TV and the Internet. Indeed, a celebrity who gets himself or herself tied up with the law makes the newspapers sell. When she played the role of twins in The Parent Trap, Lohan was â€Å"the adorable redhead... who won a Young Artist Award† (James) for the movie. She was a smart, bubbly and talented girl who would have been a very good and influential role model to young people. Most of her characters in her movies are that of a sweet and responsible teenager who always did the right things or learned from her mistakes. Her audience used to adore her. They felt good after watching her movies. Sadly, this has not been the case since 2007. According to Sherry Gaba (2011), a life coach, â€Å"teens not only mimic the clothes, jewelry, and cosmetics celebrities use, but now increasingly see addiction as glamorous.† Because they are celebrities, the media grabs at any opportunity to feature stars lik e Lohan, thinking the hot news will sell more newspapers, etc. What it is actually doing is telling the younger audience, especially those who are very impressionable, that doing drugs or driving under the influence will get you on a TV show or will make people talk about you. Social media has such a powerful effect on the public. Indeed, it is only prudent that when celebrities such as Lohan commit an offense, the media show them being rightly punished and made to serve the punishment, not just have the option to pay fines or bail fees. Another important reason why stricter penalties would be advisable for celebrities is because they themselves do not seem to take existing rules very seriously. Whenever a celebrity is caught committing illegalities, the celebrity’s lawyer is quick to negotiate a way out for his/her client. Because of this, celebrities feel they can just pay their way every time they are caught. Lohan, for example, has appeared in court 20 times, violated her probation 4 times and was allowed to just spend 35 days at her home to relieve jail overcrowding. (Duke) Lohan had been fitted with an electronic bracelet to monitor her movements while on probation, gone to rehab numerous times, failed drug tests several times and had also posted bail, totalling to a $475,000. (Duke) The public has questioned why

Buy me buy me Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Buy me buy me - Essay Example Less focus on the school commercialization does not indicate an end to it, rather it can be an indication of increases acceptance of this marketing practice. Molnar’s audience here is the district governemnt, educational institutes, parents and students. Molnar also impliedly communicates to the community and government at large. In the article we find a lack of governmental policies and their implication along with a similar blind conscience of community. By making this deficiency apparent in his article, Molnar emphasizes for the promotion of an active resistance on all levels. His persuasive argumentation is casting a strong glimmer of reprimand for the advertising industries. The objective of the article is to evoke an active resistance against the school commercialism and to make it clear that school commercialism has not disappeared yet. In the support of his stance against the prevailing misperception, as he clarifies that it may have only been due to the acceptance of increasing commercialization in educational institutes, as he mentions that "Of particular note again this year was the lack of voice in the education media on commercializing activity in schools" (Molnar and Reaves, 2001). The article’s purpose also is to jolt the authorities of educational institutes and the district governments to stir their ethical educational conscience. The school marketing is misleading the young generation and thereby jeopardizing the future of our country. Molnar aims to highlight the still prevailing unworthy cost of such commercialization, as was the case of Philio Morriss textbook program that was advertising smoking at a subliminal level (Molnar and Reaves, 2001). The article intends to evoke awareness in schools and institutions against the persuasive strategies of the industries, to make the institutes aware of the meager benefits and abundant

Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Coursework Example that the company should consider includes ensuring that the quality of the products is not compromised at any time as this will help to maintain the sales levels and the profit margin. Absorption costing also known as full costing is a costing technique that value the closing stocks at the fill production cost including the fixed production costs. This method treats the fixed costs as product costs and they are incurred when the stock has been sold. The cost per unit constitutes both the fixed and the variable production costs. The process of absorption costing is as follows: gathering the raw data from the financial records, classifying the raw data in respect to the type of expense a process known as coding, cost analysis, determination of the cost centres that provide services to production cost centres, identify product cost centres that are involved directly with the production process and finally overhead absorption. This technique can be applied in different types of organizations that deal with the production and manufacturing of various products. For example the organizations that deal with sales have different costs that can be absorbed using the absorption technique to prepare the financial statements. A manufacturing organization is another example where this technique can be applied to absorb the various overhead costs using the direct costs incurred as the cost centres for allocation of the overheads. Absorption costing absorbs the total overheads into production and this generates implications when measuring performance, cost control and also the valuation of stocks. It is worth noting that the fixed costs do not vary with the level of activity and therefore this can lead to managers making incorrect decision about the business operations. Additionally, absorption costing allocates the overhead costs including the fixed costs on the basis of the cost driver. This method can be biased in determining the cost driver for each cost and therefore this

Should celebrities who break the law face stricker penalties Research Paper

Should celebrities who break the law face stricker penalties - Research Paper Example Because they are idolized by young people and many of them appear to make a habit of crossing the line, the government should consider handing out more stringent punishments for law-breaking celebrities. Lindsay Lohan entered the limelight as a child fashion model at the age of three. She is best known for her roles in movies such as Herbie, Mean Girls and the remakes of The Parent Trap and Freaky Friday. Lohan became a household name because of how well she played goodie-girl-next-door roles. Sadly, Lohan has also become popular due to the number of times she has been asked to appear in court for drinking and driving and other acts of misdemeanor. From May 26, 2007 when she was arrested for driving under the influence (DUI) the first time, Lohan had been arrested a second time for DUI and another time for stealing a necklace at a store. (Kunkle, A., 2011) There has also been multiple probation periods served and several fines and bail fees paid. Lohan’s face crying at a heari ng or sitting inside a courtroom with her attorney has been on newspapers, TV and the Internet. Indeed, a celebrity who gets himself or herself tied up with the law makes the newspapers sell. When she played the role of twins in The Parent Trap, Lohan was â€Å"the adorable redhead... who won a Young Artist Award† (James) for the movie. She was a smart, bubbly and talented girl who would have been a very good and influential role model to young people. Most of her characters in her movies are that of a sweet and responsible teenager who always did the right things or learned from her mistakes. Her audience used to adore her. They felt good after watching her movies. Sadly, this has not been the case since 2007. According to Sherry Gaba (2011), a life coach, â€Å"teens not only mimic the clothes, jewelry, and cosmetics celebrities use, but now increasingly see addiction as glamorous.† Because they are celebrities, the media grabs at any opportunity to feature stars lik e Lohan, thinking the hot news will sell more newspapers, etc. What it is actually doing is telling the younger audience, especially those who are very impressionable, that doing drugs or driving under the influence will get you on a TV show or will make people talk about you. Social media has such a powerful effect on the public. Indeed, it is only prudent that when celebrities such as Lohan commit an offense, the media show them being rightly punished and made to serve the punishment, not just have the option to pay fines or bail fees. Another important reason why stricter penalties would be advisable for celebrities is because they themselves do not seem to take existing rules very seriously. Whenever a celebrity is caught committing illegalities, the celebrity’s lawyer is quick to negotiate a way out for his/her client. Because of this, celebrities feel they can just pay their way every time they are caught. Lohan, for example, has appeared in court 20 times, violated her probation 4 times and was allowed to just spend 35 days at her home to relieve jail overcrowding. (Duke) Lohan had been fitted with an electronic bracelet to monitor her movements while on probation, gone to rehab numerous times, failed drug tests several times and had also posted bail, totalling to a $475,000. (Duke) The public has questioned why

Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Coursework Example that the company should consider includes ensuring that the quality of the products is not compromised at any time as this will help to maintain the sales levels and the profit margin. Absorption costing also known as full costing is a costing technique that value the closing stocks at the fill production cost including the fixed production costs. This method treats the fixed costs as product costs and they are incurred when the stock has been sold. The cost per unit constitutes both the fixed and the variable production costs. The process of absorption costing is as follows: gathering the raw data from the financial records, classifying the raw data in respect to the type of expense a process known as coding, cost analysis, determination of the cost centres that provide services to production cost centres, identify product cost centres that are involved directly with the production process and finally overhead absorption. This technique can be applied in different types of organizations that deal with the production and manufacturing of various products. For example the organizations that deal with sales have different costs that can be absorbed using the absorption technique to prepare the financial statements. A manufacturing organization is another example where this technique can be applied to absorb the various overhead costs using the direct costs incurred as the cost centres for allocation of the overheads. Absorption costing absorbs the total overheads into production and this generates implications when measuring performance, cost control and also the valuation of stocks. It is worth noting that the fixed costs do not vary with the level of activity and therefore this can lead to managers making incorrect decision about the business operations. Additionally, absorption costing allocates the overhead costs including the fixed costs on the basis of the cost driver. This method can be biased in determining the cost driver for each cost and therefore this

The Emergence of the Novel Essay Example for Free

The Emergence of the Novel Essay According to Julien D. Bonn in A Comprehensive Dictionary of Literature, a novel is a ‘long fictional narrative in prose, which developed from the novella and other early forms of narrative.’ Additionally, E.M. Forster in attempting to the define the term ‘novel’ in Aspects of the Novel cites the definition of a Frenchman named Abel Chevally; ‘a fiction in prose of a certain extent’ and adds that he defines ‘extent’ as over 50,000 words. The novel tends to depict imaginary characters and situations but may include references to real places, people and events. Even though its characters and actions are imaginary, they are in some sense representative of real life. The emergence of the novel in its recognizably modern form, unlike the emergence of drama and poetry, can be traced back to Europe in the 18th century. The various factors that gave rise to the novel in English, which are more or less interrelated, include the rise of literacy, the explosion of the printing culture as well as the rise of individualism. One factor that gave rise to the novel in English was the rise of literacy. The novel emerged as a fully evolved literary form in the mid-eighteenth century in Samuel Richardson’s ‘Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded. A novel is usually organized under a plot of theme with a focus on character development and action. The novel is a young genre, a tiny infant indeed in comparison to poetry and drama, both of which seems to be as old as humanity. The educational system was not influenced significantly by the scientific revolution prior to the Enlightenment. Through the scientific revolution a great deal of traditional views at that time such as superstition and religion were broken down. Scientific facts and reasoning were now held at high esteem and great focus was placed on these two concepts. Philosophers such as John Locke went on to postulate that knowledge is obtained through sensation and reflection. This postulation was the basis of Locke’s theory that everyone has the same capacity of sensation, and education should not be restricted to a certain class or gender. Prior to the 17th and 18th century, literacy was generally restricted to males who belonged to the categories of nobles, mercantile, and professional classes but with the development of the education system, education was now provided to all classes. The literacy rate in Europe from the 17th century to the 18th century grew significantly. With the rise in literacy there was now a public demand for the novel. There were changes in the public cultural institutions, such as libraries and museums. The public libraries were now funded by the state and were accessible to everyone for free. Prior to the Enlightenment, libraries in Europe were restricted mostly to academies, aristocratic and private owners. During the 18th century, the price of books were too high for the average person, especially the most popular works such as an encyclopedias. Therefore, the public libraries offered commoners a chance of reading literates that could only be afforded by the wealthier classes. Thus the average, run of the mill individual who felt that need to put their thoughts to paper did exactly that and could do so effectively because of their educational exposure. Another factor that gave rise to the novel in English was the explosion of the printing culture. The modern novel is said to be the child of the printing press which is strongly connected to the rise in literacy. The number of books being published in the period of Enlightenment increased dramatically due to the increase in literacy rate and the increase in demand for books. Now that more people were literate, more people wished to write. Yet, prior to the inception of the printing press, writers would have to literally write their texts by hand. This proved to be very monotonous and discouraged many writers from penning books. However, the explosion of the print culture in the 18th century was both the result and cause of the increase in literacy. The number of books being published in the period of Enlightenment increased dramatically due to the increase in literacy rate and the increase in demand for books. There was a shift in interest in the categories of books, in the 17th century, religious books had comprised around half of all books published. However, throughout the century, the percentage of traditional genres such as religion has dropped to one-tenth by 1790 and there was an increase in popularity for the almanacs. Yet another factor that gave rise to the novel in English was the rise in individualism. Individualism is one of the cornerstones of the Enlightenment. It is a philosophy stressing the recognition of every person as a valuable individual with inalienable, inborn rights. Individualism highlighted man’s ability to reason, to look past the traditions and conventions that had dominated Europe in the past, and to make decisions for himself. Moreover, these ideas represented the separation and autonomy of man’s intellect from God—a development that opened the door to new discoveries and ideas and threatened the most powerful of Europe’s long-standing institutions. People were now writing about other people who were just like them.

The development of mughlai cuisine of North India

The development of mughlai cuisine of North India 2.1. Introduction To study the impact of events on the development of Mughlai cuisine of North India and the further scopes to promote food tourism destination. The aim of this chapter is to provide its readers with an overview into the topic of the research. The first section of this chapter would deal with the introduction to the Mughal History, Imperial cuisine and Sultans etiquette . The second section would deal with Tourism and its social and cultural impact on a society. The final section would deal with the relation between Food Tourism , culture and foodways. 2.1.1 Mughal Empire Arab raiders had established their hegemony in Sindh in western India by about AD713 , but the Muslim presence only made itself felt with the raid s of Mohammed of Ghazni from about AD 1000.About AD 1206 the first sultans , those of the slave dynasty , set up rule in Delhi. Eleven of them in successions gave place to two from the house of Balban, six Khaljis, three Tughlaks (including Muhammad bin Tughlak from AD 1324-51), four Saiyyids and three Lodis, stretching in all for slightly more than three hundred years (Life and condition of people in Hindustan ,1935) .In 1526 the ruler Babar established the Mughal dynasty in India. He followed by Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jhan and Aurangzeb. The Mughal period was remarkably well documented. Both the emperors Babar and Jahangir were superb diarists and Akbars affair were minutely chronicled in the Ain-i-Akbari[1] and Akbar-Name by his court historian Abu Fazal. From the time of Jahangir and thereafter, a series of travelers from Europe left vivid impressionistic accounts of the rulers and the people of India. To the somewhat ascetic Hindu dining ambience the Muslims brought refined and courtly etiquette of both group of both group and individual dining, and of sharing food in fellowship. Food items native to India were enriched with nuts, raisins, spices and ghee. These included meat and rice dishes (Palao[2]) , dressed meat (Kabab[3]) , stuffed items (Samosas[4]) , desserts (Halva[5], stewed fruit) and sweetened drinks (Falooda[6], Sherbet[7]). New dishes enriched the cuisine of the wheat finely grounded meat (Halim[8], Harisa[9]), or the frozen Kulfi[10], a rich ice cream of Khoa[11], or Jalebi[12]. Muslims influenced both the style and substance of Indian food. 2.1.2 The Sultans etiquette Mubarak Ali in his thesis ‘The Court of the Great Mughals (1976) has written a great deal to about the dining customs of the Delhi Sultans, which were perhaps unique to Muslims royalty in India. A certain ritual of formality was observed: Before the dinners begins, the Chamberlain[13] stands at the head of the dinners carpet (Simat[14]) and performs the bow (Khidmat[15]) in the direction of sultan; and all present do the same. The khidmat in India consists of bowing down to the knee as in prayers. After this the people would sit down to eat, and then they are bought gold, silver and glass cups filled with fine sugar water perfumed with rose-water which they call sherbet. After they have taken the sherbet, the chamberlain calls out Bismillah[16]. Then all begin to eat. At the end of the dinner, jugs of barley-drink (Fuqqa[17]) are brought; and when these have been consumed, betel leaves and nuts are served. After the people have taken the betel and nuts, the chamberlain calls out Bismillah, whereupon all stand up and bow in the same way as before. Then they retire. Two types of dinners were held in the royal palace, A private dinners is the one that sultan attends. It is his way to eat along with those who are present and those whom he calls for the purpose , such as the special amirs[18]- the head chamberlain (amirhajib) , the sultans paternal cousins , Imad-ul-mulk Sartez and master of ceremonies (amir-i-majlis)- and those out of the aizza (‘The Honourables) and great amirs whom he wants to honour and revere. Occasionally, when he is declined to honour any one from among present, he takes a plate, puts bread on it and gives it to him. The latter receives it: and placing the plate on his left hand, he bows with his right hand touching the ground. Sometimes the Sultan sends something from that meal to one absent from it, and the latter too bows like the one present and sits down to eat it along with those that be in his company. The number nobles attending these private dinners never exceeded twenty. It has been remarked that such long convivialities in the company of nobles served to throw them into Sultans Company, and thus keep them out of trouble. The public dinners are brought from the kitchen led by the palace officers, who call out Bismillah; and they are headed by the chief palace officer. He holds in his hand a gold mace and is accompanied by his deputy who carries a silver mace. As soon as they enter the fourth gate and those in the council-hall hear the call, all stand up and none remain seated, the sultan alone is excepted. When the dishes are served on the floor, the palace of officers stand up in rows, their chiefs standing in front. He makes a discourse in which he praises the sultan and eulogizes him; then he bows to him and in the same manner bow all those present in the council-hall whether big or small. Their custom is that anyone who hears the call of chief palace officer (naqib-un-nuquba[19]) stops instantly, if walking and remains in his place if he happens to be standing and none can move until the discourse is over. Then his deputy too makes a similar discourse and bows; and so do the palace officers and all the people in the second time. Then all the people take their seats; and the gate secretaries draft a report informing the Sultan that the food has been brought, even though he is aware of that. The report is handed over to a boy from one of the maliks son appointed for this purpose and he takes the message to the Sultan who, on reading it, appoints whosoever he likes from among the great amirs to supervise the seating and feeding of the people. Mubarak Ali in his book ‘Mughal Darbar† (1993) has stated something about the seating also: The custom at that point of time was that the judges (Qazis[20]) , orators (Khatibs[21]) and jurists (Shorfa[22]) sit on a carpet (simat) : and then come the sultan relatives , the great amirs and the rest of the people. But none sits expect at his appointed place; and thus there is absolutely no confusion amongst them. All having then their representative seats, the cup bearer (Shurbdariya[23]) who give the holding in their hands gold , silver, copper and glass vessels filled with refined sugar dissolved in water, which they drink at dinner. Everyone had before him, a set of all the various dishes comprising the dinner, which he eats exclusively; and no one shares his plate with another. When they finish eating, the drink (Fuqqa) is served in pewter tankards; and as soon as the people take it the chamberlains call out Bismillah. At that time the while gathering stands up, and the amirs supervising the feast bows, and they bow too; then they retire .The dinners were held twice a day one in the forenoon and the other in the afternoon. 2.1.3 Kings drink ‘Any Muslim who drinks (wine) is punished with 80 stripes, and is shut up in a matamore (cell) for 3 months, which is opened only at the time of meal. So says the Quran (Chapter 6). However there is no doubt that drinking was very common among the sultans and the nobility. For the Mughals wine had a strong attraction. Babar had periodic fits of abstinence, when he would break up his flagons and goblets of gold and silver and give away the pieces, only to resume drinking and the use of bhang, after telling himself (P.N. Chopra ,1963, Society and Culture in Mughal India. ). Akbar, according to the Jesuit Father Monserate, rarely drank wine, proffering bhang. He enforced prohibition in his court , but relaxed rules for European travelers because ‘they are born in the element of wine , as fresh fish are produced in water †¦and to prohibit them the use of it is to deprive them of their life ( J.S.Hoyland and, and S.banerjee 1922, The Cemetery of Father Monserrate). Of his sons, Daniyal and Murad both died young due to excessive drinking. His other son Jahangir was much addicted, but did not drink on Thursdays and Fridays (Nicclao Manucci, Storio de Mogor 1653-1708, trans William Irvine) . However at end of his regime Jahangir would imbibe 20 cups of double distilled liquor daily, 14 during the day and the rest at night (P.N. Chopra ,1963, Society and Culture in Mughal India. ). Shah Jahan drank but never beyond the limits of decency. The next emperor Aurangzeb was of course strict teetotaler who in 1668 issued severe prohibition order to all his subjects, Hindus and Muslim alike. To make this liquor, arrack or rice sprit was put into empty barrel that had contained wine from Europe. The dregs of other barrels were also added, together with water and sweet sugar. After eight mounts, the clear liquid tasting something like white wine. Another wine was made by steeping resins in rice sprit for 3 to 4 days, straining and then holding the liquid in an empty barrel for 6 to 8 months; an extract of dates was sometimes added for sweetness and flavour (William Foster, Early Travels in India 1583-1619). 2.1.4 The Imperial cuisine Babar is said to have lived in India for only 4  ½ years after conquering. He lamented fact that this country had ‘no grapes , musk melons or first rate fruits, no ice cold water, no bread or cooked food in bazaars (A.S.Beveridge, trans. Babur-nama, 1922) . He commented most judiciously on the flora and fauna that he first encountered in this new country. He commented that chironji[24] is â€Å"a thing between the almond and the walnut, and not so bad† .He also described the fish from Hindustan as very savoury and that they had no odour or tiresomeness (meaning probably lack of bones). But heart Babar remained an alien to Indian food. His son Humayun however was much more â€Å"Indianized†. Humayun even gave up animal flesh for some months when he started his campaign to recover the throne, and deciding after some reflection , that beef was not a food for devout (J.S.Hoyland and, and S.banerjee , The Cemetery of Father Monserrate,, 1922). Akbar did not like meat and took it only seasonally ‘to conform to the sprit of the age'(P.N. Chopra, Society and Culture in Mughal India,1963). He abstained from meat at first of all Fridays, subsequently on Sundays also, then on first day of every solar month, then during the whole month of Fawardin[25] (March), and finally during his berth month of Aban[26] (November). He started his meal with curds and rice, and preferred simple food. One of travelers Father Monserate documented that Akbars table was very sumptuous, consisting of more than 40 courses served in great dishes served in great dishes. These dishes were brought into the royal dining hall covered and wrapped in linen cloths, which are tied and sealed, for the fear of poison (J.S.Hoyland and, and S.banerjee ,The Cemetery of Father Monserrate ,1922). The Ain-i-Akbari describes three classes cooked dishes. In the first, called safiyana, consumed by Akbars day of abstinence, no meat was used . The dishes were made of rice (zard-birinj[27], khushka[28], khichri[29] and sheer-birinj[30]), wheat (chikhi[31], essentially the starch of the rice isolated by washing and then seasoned), dhals[32], palak sag[33], halwa, sherbet etc. The second class comprised those in which both meat and rice were employed (like Palao, Biryani[34], Shulla[35] and Shurba[36]), or meat and wheat (Harisa, Halim and Kashk[37] ) .The third class was that in which meat was cooked in ghee, spices, curd, eggs etc. These dishes in due course of time came to be known as Yakhni[38], Kabab, Do-Pyazza[39], Musallam[40], Dampukth[41], Qaliya[42] and Malghuba[43]. Bread in this time was either thick, made from wheat flour and baked in an oven; or thin, and bake on iron plates using dough of either wheat or khushka. Raw material came from various places; rice from Bharaijj , Gwalior , Rajori and Nimlah, ghee[44] from Hissar , ducks, waterfowls and certain vegetables from Kashmir ,and fruits from across the north western borders as well as from all over the country. Though Jahangir, unlike his father, enjoyed eating meat, and especially the animals of the chase, he kept his father schedule of abstinence, adding Thursday to them, that being the day of birth of his son Akbar. He banned the slaughter of animals on Thursday and Sundays. He seemed to have left fish altogether and preferred a khichri called lazizan, made of rice cooked with pulses, ghee, spices and nuts on the days of abstinence from flesh . Another of his favorites was Falooda, jelly made from the straining of boiled wheat, mixed with fruit juices and cream (P.N. Chopra, Society and Culture in Mughal India, 1963). Aurangzeb son of Jahangir on the other hand was a Spartan. Tavernier says that no animal passed his lips: he become ‘thin and lean to which the great fasts that he kept have contributed †¦he only drank a little water ,and ate little quantity of millet bread .Besides that he slept on the ground with only a tigers skin over him (P.N. Chopra, Society and Culture in Mughal India, 1963). 2.2.Tourism Tourism today is one the fastest growing sectors in the global economy. It is also one ofthe largest sectors in the world economy making ever increasing contributions to global output and employment.In 2008, international tourist arrivals grew by 2% to 924 million, up 16 million over 2007. Analysts further predict that the tourist arrivals will touch 1.6 billion by the year 2020. Tourism is one of the largest income generators for an economy and is growing at a very rapid pace. Growth in tourism also translates into indirect growth and impact on miscellaneous other sectors of the economy (Farooquee, N.A. et al (2008) ‘ Environmental and Socio-Cultural Impacts of River Rafting and Camping on Ganga in Uttarakhand Himalaya). 2.2.1 INTRODUCTION Service industry has gained extreme potential in the past two decades and is now one of the main industries for social and economic growth of any region. This growth has bought along with itself an increase in the global output and various employment opportunities. One of the important components of the service sector is tourism sector. The World Tourism Organization defines tourism as â€Å"The activities of persons traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purpose† (Commission of the European Communities et al., 2001). Tourism incorporates both tangible and intangible elements of service sector. Tourism has evolved over time (six decades approximately) and has been continuing growing and diversifying in order to become the fastest and the largest growing economic sectors in the world. Tourism has been flourishing at an exponential rate thereby promoting and exploring new destinations and in some cases becoming the main driver of the economy. In some the developing countries it is one of the main income generating sector and also the number one in export category there by generating employment on a larger scale. The travel and tourism industry is undergoing a transformation as the significance of this industry is unveiled by most countries. 2.2.2 HISTORY OF VOYAGES AND TRAVELLERS: Tourism has been evident throughout the ages. It has only taken a major jump in the past few decades and has become a major part of the economy. Ancient age travel was mostly an unconscious affair. Travel was mainly an outcome of trade and other commerce activities. In other words, earlier traveler can be regarded as a merchant looking for goods and products and engaging in trade and commerce. Countries like India and China have attracted travelers from all over the ancient world. This trend continued resulting in exploration of different destinations by the Europeans especially heading towards Indian shores for the sole purpose of trade and commerce. The urge to explore new lands and to seek new knowledge in ancient and distant lands was yet another motive of travellers in subsequent periods. Travelling that took place during the Middle Ages was mostly for religious purposes. The practice for travelling for religious purposes became a well established custom in many parts of the wor ld. Romans were known for travelling during this era and wherever they went, there existed a fine network of roads. Tourism gained momentum as soon as changes like the mental attitudes towards pleasure, education based travel; increase in disposal income, need for a break from the monotonous work schedule etc took place. For nearly the first quarter of the 20th century pleasure travel was only for the privileged ones of the society having free time in hand as well as substantial purchasing power. Numerous travel associations were formed during this time of the century who organized trips and vacations for middle class and their families. However, it was the 20th century where a change was witnessed in the whole tourism scenario especially from an international perspective for different purposes like health, business, recreation or religious purposes which led governments to issue passports and visas and take initiatives to their citizens abroad. Increase in tourism has been beneficial for the entire world connecting all the destinations to one another. However, there have been problems associated with developing nations where the government capacity is limited and tourist numbers are increasing. These nations rely highly on tourism and are severely affected when tourism is discouraged on the grounds of criminal activities and safety and security issues. â€Å"These issues and many more like the environmental issues have grown as international tourism arrivals have soared to over 800 million annually. By 2020 that figure is expected to be over 1.6 billion† (World Trade Organization, 1997). Despite these factors, tourism development opens doors to various employment opportunities for the developing nations. 2.2.3 IMPACTS OF TOURISM Tourism is amongst the fastest and most diverse sectors of the economy. It has been a focus of many governments, especially for developing economies, to try and develop tourism as one of the most attractive sectors of the domestic economy. Tourism invariably impacts every region, culture, people, country etc that it touches. These impacts are an intriguing mix of the good and the bad for the region. Governments have to make a trade off between the advantages offered by tourism and the negative impacts brought in by it. Mings and Chulikpongse (1994) have noted tourisms role as an agent of change, bringing myriad impacts on regional economic conditions, social institutions and environmental quality. The impacts of tourism can be categorized into the following parts i.e. Economic Impacts, Socio-Cultural Impacts and Environmental Impacts. 2.2.3. ECONOMIC IMPACTS: In most cases, economic benefits lead to the focused growth of tourism as a sector in any country. Today, tourism is one of the worlds foremost sources of export earnings, if global tourism income and international transportation receipts are included. According to Keiko Noji (2001), Governments focus on tourism development as it presents the easy route to accumulating and increasing the foreign reserves, creating jobs and contributing to over all economic growth. Private sector, which brings commercial gain to the country, is a leading force in the tourism industry. In many cases, foreign capital dominates the domestic and international market and tourism expenditure goes outside of the country. There are potential positive and negative impacts of such tourism development. 2.2.3.1 Financial: Tourism helps the host community earn various pecuniary gains in the form growth in the foreign exchange reserves, Gross Domestic Product, growth in regional commercial enterprises and for individuals as well. For e.g. the contribution of Travel Tourism to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Indiahas been forecasted to remain constant at 6.1% in 2008 to 6.1% in 2018. Also, Export earnings from international travelers and tourism goods contributed 6.7% of total exports in 2008, and it is anticipated that this will rise to 4.4% of total in 2018 (Source: World Travel Tourism Council 2008). 2.2.3.2 Employment Opportunity: Tourism development in a region leads to the more employment opportunities and higher wage rates for men and women and access to better training for employees. Lee (1996) studied the economic effects of tourism in New Zealand and concluded that tourism performed better than most industries in generating employment and tax revenues and performed moderately well in distributing income among household income classes. Cukier-Snow and Wall (1994) also examined tourism employment growth in Bali, concluding an increase in the employment of women. The contribution of the Travel Tourism Economy to employment â€Å"in India is expected to rise from 30,491,000 jobs in 2008, 6.4% of total employment, or 1 in every 15.6 jobs to 39,615,000 jobs, 7.2% of total employment or 1 in every 13.8 jobs by 2018† (Source: World Travel Tourism Council 2008). The pluses associated with tourism overpower the negatives it brings with it. However, negative impacts associated with tourism can not be ignored. The employment is often part-time and low paid. The skilled positions are occupied by foreign nationals and therefore there is disparity in the income distribution pattern often associated with leakages. 2.2.3.3 Services: Tourism creates growth opportunities in a region. It leads to the creation of new facilities, utilities and recreation facilities that would not have been possible or financially viable to provide in the community. Tourist expectations can lead to better service by local shops, restaurants, and other business operators and entrepreneurs. The tourist traffic in a community leads to better facilities such as fire department, police, and health services which also benefits the local residents. However, long-established and conventional services may be forced out or relocated due to competition with tourist interests. Water, power, fuel, and other shortages may be experienced because of increased pressure on the infrastructure. 2.2.3.4 Others: Other economic impacts of tourism includes expansion of the economic base (i.e., diversification), Inter-sectoral linkage and Multiplier effects, growth of entrepreneurship as products and services can be locally produced by tourism related and other business, creation and growth of infrastructure facilities, betterment of social services and encouragement of regional development in underdeveloped areas. The most profound impact that tourism has on the host economy is through the development and growth of infrastructure in the domestic country. 2.2.4 SOCIO CULTURAL IMPACTS: Tourism can be act as either an international peace maker and can help in understanding or it can be a destructive force attacking different cultures, ecology, and local communities (Mirbabayev. B, Shagazatova. M). Thus, development of a tourist destinations and its associated conveniences and benefits require a detailed plan in order to achieve triumph over the negativity associated with it, especially in developing countries where conserving and developing the quality of life of local populations is challenging. The social and cultural implications of tourism necessitate thorough and detailed deliberations, as effects can either translate into long term benefits or detriments to communities. A nations culture and social environment is extremely vulnerable and thus it needs protection and preservation, as tourism is an eroding force of modernization. ( Hing. N, Dimmock. K, 1997) 2.2.4.1 Cultural Impacts: Local culture of a region or country is the focal point for attracting tourists to the region. Though the local sculpture, music, dance, cuisine, clothing, handicrafts and traditional customs, ceremonies and folklore are a source of attraction, tourism can lead to commercialization and misuse of these very assets. This will further lead to the deterioration, degradation and finally the disappearance and the local culture. Some of the customary activities of a region may seem absurd to the tourists may lead the tourists to oppose and derogatory activities against the local culture (Xavier, 2001). Cultural aspects of host regions act as tourist attractors, but are simultaneously vulnerable to acculturation. Though it has a negative impact on the local traditions, various authors have studied that it can assist in the preservation process. According to a study carried out by Teye, tourism can contribute to greater understanding between North and South Africa by developing cultural tourism which promotes host-guest experiences and not than superficial encounters, (Hing. N, Dimmock. K, 1997). In another case study on the impacts of tourism on the Khajuraho temple in India, it is stated that tourism can bring economic relief and prosperity to local community, with minimal socio-cultural costs. (Hing. N, Dimmock. K, 1997) 2.2.5.2 Social Impacts: Social interface amid tourists and local community may result in mutual appreciation, understanding, acceptance, awareness and learning. It gives the host community a big boost in confidence and esteem, and reduces prejudices and abolishes preconceived notions and perceptions. Local communities are benefited through contribution by tourism to the improvement of the social infrastructure for example development of roads, parks, museums, health care institutions, internet cafes etc. Robinson (1999), states that there is no evidence that proves that tourism is bringing different cultures together. Tourism can increase tension, hostility, and suspicion. Tourism has an adverse impact on the traditional practices, the perception of the residents. Unbalanced population structures, displacement of local people, a negative behavior by visitors toward residents and an adverse effect on the overall community life. Various studies have been carried out to determine that an increase in tourism has a direct impact on the increase in crime rate of a destination, as most often tourists are the victims to these criminal acts (McElroy, Tarlow Carlisle, 2007). Tourism can and often does lead to problems such as prostitution, alcoholism, gambling and drug trafficking. There are few tourist destinations immune to this problem (Noji.K, 2001). Hence it is extremely essential to promote tourism in the region while ensuring that it provides both incomes as well as generates respect for the local tradition and culture. 2.3 Food Tourism Food Tourism is all about food as a subject and medium, destination and vehicle, for tourism. It is about individuals exploring foods new to them as well as using food to explore new culture and ways of being. It is about groups using food to ‘sell their histories and to construct marketable and publically attractive identities, and it is about individuals satisfying curiosity. Finally it is about experiencing of food in a mode that is out of the ordinary, that steps outside the normal routine to notice difference and the power of food to represent and negotiate the difference. Folklorist, food scholars and food aficionados have long fascinated by occasions of exploratory eating- instances of eating the new, the unfamiliar, the alien- and by the institutional cookbooks and folklife festivals. These occasions and include variety of food related behaviours and reflect complex network of cultural, social, economic and aesthetic systems as well as individual preferences. The definition of what constitutes adventurous eating is a contextual one that depends on the perspective and motivations of the eater. The author states that the purpose of food tourism as a framework is to try together the notion of perspective and variety of instances in which a foodways is considered representative of the other. Lucy M Long (2007) defines food tourism as the international as the international, exploratory participation in the foodways another-participation including the consumption, preparation and presentation of food items, cuisine, meal system or eating style considered to a culinary system that no one owns. This definition emphasis on the individual as an active agent in constructing meaning within a tourist experience and it allows for an aesthetic response to food as a part of the experience. Exploration and internationality define these instances as tourism. Valence Smith (1989) defines a tourist as a temporarily leisured person who voluntarily visits a place away from home for the purpose of experiencing a change. The culinary tourist participates for the purpose of experiencing a change in foodways not merely hunger. Nelson Graburn (1989) proposed that for the tourist to experience is a journey from profane to the sacred as a way to embellish and add meaning to ones life. The tourist experience offers not only new cultures and new sights, but also a new way of perceiving those sights and these new way eventually enhance an individual. Johan Urry (1990) developed this notion of tourism as quantitative category of experience, defining it as a kind of viewing he refers to as a â€Å" tourist gaze†. This gaze is different from â€Å"every day looking† in that it attends to difference . It notices contrast and distinctiveness , it shifts the ordinary action and objects out of the ordinary world enable ling and encouraging viewers to rcognise their power as symbols , entertainment and art. 2.4 Authenticity and Culinary Tourism in Mughlai Restaurants across Delhi and Agra Food tourism has long been linked with authenticity in Mughlai restaurants across Delhi and Agra. Lifestyle magazines such as Gourmet and Travel Leisure reveal the connection between food and tourism. On the other side , backpacker guides like the Lonely Planet always include sections on local foods and where to eat while traveling. As these magazines demonsterate food and tourism go hand in hand. But when eating is tourism, a whole new theoretical framework arises. Culinary tourism, the exploration of foreign foodways as a representative of an other provides a framework for interrogating the various intersections between tourism and foodways (Long, 1998). The term authensity has been widely used to study both foodways and tourism, it can also be applied within the frame work of culinary tourism to have a better understanding about social dynamics, particularly the process of identity construction and va